Bodhisattva: one who has achieved enlightenment, but postpones achieving nirvana so that he may help others come closer to enlightenment. Frequently contrasted with the Arhat, who achieves enlightenment for himself alone. It is sometimes said that the Bodhisattva is a Mayahana ideal, while the Arhat is the Theravada ideal, but this is probably too simplisitic.
Brahaman: the ultimate reality, which is a universal consciousness, according to Hinduism.
Buddha-nature: reality as it truly is (as opposed to samsara, which see). Also referred to as tathata.
Candrakirti: advocate of Madhyamika and commentator on Nagarjuna.
Ch'an: (Chin.) a sect of Mahayana Buddhism, better known in the USA by its Japanese name, "Zen." Doctrinally very similar to Hua-yen Buddhism, but what is distinctive of Ch'an is the development of a monastic lifestyle and techniques to assist one in achieving enlightenment, including zazen and the koan. The best book on the development of Ch'an is Heinrich Dumoulin, Zen Buddhism: A History, 2 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1989, 1994).
dharma: a key Buddhist term with several different meanings: (1) the teachings of the Buddha; (2) a moment or aspect of the world of flux and impermanence (roughly equivalent to an instance of one of the five aggregates); (3) fate or causal law.
epistemology: the branch of philosophy that is concerned with the nature, sources and limits of knowledge. What is knowledge? Can we have knowledge? If so, how can we get knowledge? Through the physical senses? Through reason? Buddhist views on epistemology vary depending on the school or sect, but generally Buddhists think that enlightenment is a kind of mystical knowledge that is beyond reason and language. However, most Buddhists think that reason and language have a role to play in preparing and assisting an individual to have the mystical experience.
Fa-tsang: Chinese Buddhist philosopher (A.D. 643-712), de facto founder of Hua-yen Buddhism and author of the ÒTreatise on the Golden Lion.Ó There is not, to the best of my knowledge, a really good translation of this "Treatise" into English, but the one in Fung Yu-lan, A History of Chinese Philosophy: Volume 2: Period of Classical Learning, trans. Derk Bodde (Princeton University Press, 1983) is not as bad as some others. See also Hua-yen.
Hua-yen (Chin.) Buddhism: a variety of Mahayana Buddhism, which has had a significant influence on ChÕan, and on Neo-Confucianism. Its fundamental teaching is that all is one and one is all. Known in Japan as Kegon. The best book on Hua-yen is Francis H. Cook, Hua-yen Buddhism: The Jewel Net of Indra (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977) (which is, unfortunately, out of print). See also Fa-tsang and net of Indra.
koan (Jap.): in the practice of Ch'an, a seemingly nonsensical riddle or statement given by a master to a disciple to meditate upon. Classic examples include, "What was your face before your mother was born?" "What is the sound of one hand clapping?" Koans do admit of conceptual analysis. For example, since Chan is influenced by Hua-yen, it holds that everything is one. Therefore, to assume that I only exist after I am born is to fail to grasp the interrelationship of everything. Consequently, you could identify anything that exists as "your face before your mother was born." However, such conceptual understanding is only a stage on the way to the intuitive understanding of the koan, which is identical with enlightenment. So a Ch'an master is as interested in how a student answers a question, as he is in what the content of the student's answer is.
Mahayana: One of the two major divisions of Buddhism, the other being Theravada. (This latter kind of Buddhism is also referred to contemptuously as "Hinayana"). Mayahana stresses the duty of the enlightened to work compassionately to relieve the suffering of others, and argues that all sentient creatures will ultimately achieve Buddhahood. Mahayana Buddhism spread northeast from India into China (1st century A.D.), and from there into Tibet and Korea, and from Korea into Japan. Hua-yen Buddhism and Ch'an are kinds of Mahayana.
metaphysics: the branch of philosophy that is concerned with what kinds of things exist, and how these kinds are related to one another. Metaphysics is not concerned with how many species of beetles there are, or with whether the Loch Ness Monster exists. Rather, it is concerned with what the most general kinds of entities are: Are there material objects? souls? a God? things or just events? If there are both souls and material bodies, how do the two interact? "Ontology" is often used as a synonym for metaphysics in this sense. Compare epistemology. For details of Buddhist metaphysics, see sunyata and skandha.
Nagarjuna: great Indian Buddhist philosopher (2nd century A.D.). His philosophy is called Madhyamika or the teaching of the Middle Way, and had a great influence on Hua-yen and ChÕan.
net of Indra: key image for Hua-yen Buddhism. IndraÕs net (or web) had a jewel at the intersection of any two strands, and each jewel was so brilliant that it reflected every other jewel in the web. This is a metaphor for the way that each aspect of reality (or dharma, sense 2) reflects every other aspect.
nirvana (Sansk.): the "goal" of Buddhist practice; the state that results from extinguishing craving and breaking the chain of reincarnation. The exact nature of nirvana is hard to grasp. It is clearer what it is not: nirvana is not a place like Heaven that souls go to after death (although there are various Heavens and Hells in popular Buddhism). Literally, it means a "blowing out" of the flame of craving. This description makes nirvana sound purely negative, but there are also descriptions of nirvana that make it sound like it involves a pure joy beyond the impermanence and imperfection of the ordinary world. In addition, some Buddhists in the tradition of Nagarjuna hold that "nirvana is samsara." In other words, nirvana is not some state distinct from the everyday world. Rather, to achieve nirvana is simply to see this world as empty.
ontology: see metaphysics.
prajna (Sansk.): wisdom, insight into reality, understanding the Four Noble Truths.
samadhi (Sansk.): a meditative state of calm. Samadhi is sometimes contrasted with prajña; however, Chan Buddhists identify prajña and samadhi as two aspects of the enlightened mind.
samsara: the illusory world of common sense, the cycle of existence.
sangha: the community of Buddhist monks.
skandha (Sansk.): one of the five kinds of entities according to Buddhism. Sometimes translated as "aggregate," as in "the five aggregates": matter, sensation, perception, mental formations and consciousness. Each of the skandhas is thought to be in a constant state of flux.
soteriological: dealing with salvation. (Francis Cook contrasts it with cosmological, which means having to do with oneÕs view of the structure of the universe. His point is that in Indian Buddhism the notion of the tathagatagarbhah is primarily a concept designed to guide soteriological practice, while in Chinese Buddhism it refers to a part of their theory of the universe.)
sunyata (Sansk.): emptiness. The philosophical nuances of this term in Buddhism are complex. Emptiness must not be understood as simple nihilism (the denial that anything exists), much less as referring to some absolute entity that underlies appearance. Rather, things are "empty" in the sense of lacking independent, persistent existence. For one discussion, see Francis Streng, Emptiness: A Study in Religious Meaning (Abingdon Press, 1975) (which is, unfortunately, out of print).
Sunyavadin: a follower of Madhyamika (from sunyata).
tathagat: literally, Òthe thus come.Ó A term referring to the Buddha, or the ultimate nature of reality, suggesting its (or his) ineffable value and glory.
tathagatagarbhah: literally, Òthe womb of the BuddhaÓ or Òstorehouse of the Buddha.Ó The potential for Buddhahood which all beings possess.
Three Jewels: the Buddha, the community of believers in Buddhism and the teachings of the Buddhism.
upaya: Òskillful means.Ó Using language that is not strictly speaking true because of its usefulness or good consequences. The classic example is the father who gets his many children out of their burning house by telling them that there is a wagon of candy outside the house, and they must run out quickly in order to get some.
Whitehead, Alfred North: English philosopher (1861-1947) whose Process Philosophy, which holds that reality consists of events, not persistent things, is thought by some to have interesting similarities to Buddhism.
Yogacara: a Mahayana philosophical school which argues that all that exists are minds and their experiences. If there are no mind-independent things, why do people seem to have similar experiences (e.g., you and I both see the candle flame, and we both feel pain when we touch it)? Previous experiences create a Òstorehouse consciousnessÓ (alaya-vijnana, sometimes identified with the tathagatagarbha, which see) which encourages people to have similar experiences in the future.